SALAGA Journal is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Hasanuddin University. The journal publishes original research articles and review articles in the field of appropriate technology for agricultural production and processing. The journal provides a scientific forum for academics, researchers, practitioners, and stakeholders to disseminate and discuss research findings, technological innovations, and practical solutions that support agricultural production, post-harvest handling, and agricultural processing. Appropriate technology in this journal refers to tools, equipment, systems, methods, and practices that are technically feasible, economically affordable, environmentally sound, socially acceptable, and suitable for local resources, regional conditions, and farmer needs. SALAGA Journal encourages studies that contribute to improving productivity, efficiency, sustainability, and livelihoods in agricultural systems through the development and application of appropriate technologies. Editor in Chief: Haerani ISSN (online): 3032-2677 Frequency: Biannual (June and December)
Program Studi Teknik Pertanian Universitas Hasanuddin
Mapping Cacao Plantations Using Random Forest Classification and Sentinel-2A Imagery in Batulappa District, Pinrang Regency, Indonesia
Remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies provide effective tools for mapping plantation crops and supporting sustainable land management. Cacao is an important plantation commodity in Indonesia, particularly in Pinrang Regency, South Sulawesi. This study aimed to map cacao and non-cacao land cover in Batulappa District using Sentinel-2A imagery and the Random Forest algorithm. Three input approaches were evaluated: an RGB band composite, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and Gray-Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM) texture features. Ground-truth data were divided into training and validation datasets, and classification accuracy was assessed using a confusion matrix, including overall accuracy, user accuracy, and producer accuracy. The RGB band composite produced the highest overall accuracy of 85.38%, followed by GLCM with 75.47% and NDVI with 74.06%. For the cacao class, the RGB approach achieved a user accuracy of 80.00% and a producer accuracy of 86.96%, with an estimated cacao area of 4,516.80 ha, or 46.90% of the study area. These results indicate that the Sentinel-2A RGB band composite combined with Random Forest classification outperformed NDVI and GLCM for mapping cacao plantations in Batulappa District.
Copyright (c) 2026 Putri Ayu Andirah, Haerani, Suhardi, Husnul Mubarak https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Effect of Nozzle Type and Height on the Performance of the Ferto-15 Drone
The efficiency of agricultural spraying drones heavily relies on hardware selection, such as nozzles, and operational parameters like flight height, which creates a trade-off between spray coverage and drift. This study aimed to analyze the effect of three nozzle types (flat fan, even fan, cone) and three flight heights (2 m, 2.5 m, and 3 m) on spray area, drift, efficiency, and uniformity (CU and DU) on the Ferto-15 drone. The research method employed a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) under static and dynamic test conditions, with spray volume data collected using catch cans. The results indicated that flight height was the most dominant factor; increasing height expanded the spray area but increased drift and decreased efficiency in dynamic tests. Nozzle type and its interaction with height had a pronounced effect under dynamic conditions, where the Flat-Fan nozzle consistently produced the most superior distribution uniformity (CU and DU). The main conclusion shows that the most optimal configuration was the use of the Flat-Fan nozzle at a 2-meter height, which provided the best balance between high deposition efficiency (95.89%), low drift (0.411 L), and superior uniformity (CU 89.89%). This finding demonstrates that achieving effective spraying performance depends on the synergistic combination of nozzle type and flight height.
Copyright (c) 2026 M. Asqar Asqari Syafnur, Mahmud Achmad, Sitti Nur Faridah, Abdul Azis, Husnul Mubarak, Syahrial Sabaniah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Media Hydraulics Govern Pakchoi (Brassica chinensis) Growth under Floating Sub-irrigation
Floating vegetable cultivation can reduce production constraints in wetland areas, but its performance depends on the capacity of planting and suction media to regulate capillary water supply in the root zone. This study evaluated the effects of media hydraulics on root-zone moisture, growth, and yield of pakchoi under a floating sub-irrigation system. A greenhouse experiment was arranged using two planting media, namely soil:rice husk charcoal:manure (1:1:1) and soil:manure (3:1), combined with two suction media, namely crushed tile particles and fabric wick, with three replications. Hydraulic conductivity, bulk density, root-zone moisture dynamics, plant height, leaf number, and fresh biomass were observed. The soil:manure medium had lower hydraulic conductivity (4.23 × 10⁻⁵ cm s⁻¹) and higher bulk density (0.97 g cm⁻³), indicating greater water retention capacity than the more porous medium. The combination of soil:manure and crushed tile suction media produced the best crop response, with plant height of 22.17 cm, 10 leaves plant⁻¹, and fresh biomass of 86.21 g plant⁻¹. These results indicate that floating sub-irrigation performance is governed by the balance between capillary water supply and root-zone moisture retention. The system can be developed as a passive, low-energy irrigation technology for wetland vegetable cultivation.
Copyright (c) 2026 Hilda Agustina, Lily Endah Diansari, K.H. Iskandar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Physical Properties of White Pepper as Affected by Skin-Peeling Method
Skin-peeling method is a critical determinant of white pepper quality. This study evaluated the effects of two skin-peeling treatments, soaking at room temperature (30 °C for 10–14 days) and boiling at high temperature (100 °C for 10 minutes), on three physical properties of white pepper produced from green and red pepper fruits (Piper nigrum L.): moisture content (wet-basis/MC wb and dry basis/ MC db), color attributes (L*, a*, b*), and hardness. A total of 150 fresh pepper fruits from Bulukumba Regency, sorted at two maturity levels (green and red, 5.5–6.0 mm diameter), were divided into four treatment groups. This study was descriptive and comparative in nature without statistical replication; results are presented as single-point observations. The boiling treatment produced the lowest MC wb in peeled red pepper (LMPK: 8.83%), the only sample approaching the maximum threshold set by SNI 0004:2013 (≤13.0%). Soaking resulted in MC wb values of 25.05% for peeled pepper across both maturity levels. In terms of surface lightness, soaked peeled red pepper (LMRK: L* = 11.86) outperformed boiled peeled red pepper (LMPK: L* = 8.51), indicating that soaking better preserved kernel brightness. Hardness values of peeled pepper ranged from 27.68 N (LHPK) to 36.62 N (LMPK), with the boiling treatment producing comparable or slightly higher hardness than soaking. The soaking method produced brighter white pepper kernels, while boiling more effectively reduced moisture content and is better suited when shelf life is the priority.
Copyright (c) 2026 Andi Muhammad Tegar Mengembara, Muhammad Tahir Sapsal, Junaedi Muhidong https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Effects of Vernonia amygdalina and Azadirachta indica Extracts on Postharvest Weight Loss and Shelf Life of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) Cultivars
Postharvest weight loss is a major constraint on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) shelf life in tropical environments. This study evaluated ethanol and aqueous leaf extracts of Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf) and Azadirachta indica (neem) for their effects on weight retention and storage kinetics of San Marzano and Royal tomato cultivars over 20 days at ambient conditions (28 ± 2°C). Treatments comprised ethanol extracts (50–200 g/500 mL), aqueous hot and cold extracts (50 g/500 mL), and a distilled water control in a completely randomised design. Physiological loss in weight (PLW) differed significantly among treatments (p < 0.05). The 100 g/500 mL ethanol extract of bitter leaf gave the lowest PLW and highest weight retention, in Royal (37.3%) followed by San Marzano (41.9%). Hot aqueous extracts showed moderate efficacy (46.2–50.3% PLW), cold aqueous extracts were least effective (70.7–77.3%), and excess ethanol (150–200 g/500 mL) accelerated deterioration (81.6–86.9% PLW), indicating phytotoxicity. Weight loss followed an exponential decay pattern (R² = 0.91–0.98), with lower decay constants in optimised treatments (k ≈ 0.063–0.069 day⁻¹). Royal consistently showed greater postharvest stability than San Marzano. These findings indicate that a 100 g/500 mL V. amygdalina ethanol formulation offers an accessible, low-cost postharvest coating that can extend tomato shelf life and reduce reliance on synthetic fungicides for smallholder farmers in tropical regions.
Copyright (c) 2026 Folasade Ade-Ogunnowo, Oluseyi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Drought Level Analysis of Paddy Fields Using the NDDI Method Based on Sentinel-2A Imagery in South Polombangkeng District, Indonesia
Drought is a significant climate-related hazard that severely impacts agricultural productivity, particularly in rainfed paddy fields. This study aimed to analyze the spatial distribution and severity of drought in paddy fields using the Normalized Difference Drought Index (NDDI) derived from Sentinel-2A satellite imagery. The research was conducted in South Polombangkeng District, Takalar Regency, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, during the dry season in October 2023. The NDDI was calculated by integrating the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI). The results indicated that 85.78% of the paddy fields experienced severe drought, while mild and moderate drought covered 9.30% and 4.92%, respectively. NDVI analysis revealed that 87.81% of the area had very low to low vegetation density, and NDWI confirmed extreme moisture deficiency, with 99.88% of the area under very severe drought conditions. The accuracy of the NDDI drought map, validated using the Area Under the Curve (AUC), was 0.62, indicating acceptable model performance. These findings provide critical spatial information for drought mitigation and water management in vulnerable agricultural regions. The study demonstrates the utility of Sentinel-2A and NDDI for localized drought assessment and supports evidence-based decision-making for sustainable farming practices in drought-prone areas.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nur Rahmi, Husnul Mubarak, Sitti Nur Faridah, Muhammad Tahir Sapsal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Planning a Micro-Hydro System for Irrigation and Agricultural Electrification in Campaga Village, Tompobulu District
Dependence on fossil fuels and limited access to electricity and clean water are challenges to agricultural productivity in many rural areas of Indonesia, including Campaga Village. This study aims to plan an appropriate water energy conversion (pico-hydro) system to meet the operational energy needs of agriculture, particularly irrigation pumps and lighting. The planning began with measuring the potential of resources (discharge, head) and analyzing energy needs based on agricultural applications. The measurement results showed an average discharge of 0.134 m³/s with an effective head of 10.5 m, with the potential to generate mechanical power for pumps of 3.9 kW and electrical power of 2.2 kW. The needs analysis confirmed that this potential is more than sufficient to power one irrigation pump unit (~3 kW) and light 21 road lighting points (0.63 kW). The technical planning recommends the use of a crossflow turbine and a standard AC generator in accordance with the principles of appropriate technology: simple, locally maintainable, and directly integrated with agricultural needs. The conclusion of this study shows that the designed pico-hydro system is not only technically feasible but also has the potential to become strategic supporting infrastructure to improve irrigation water resilience, extend farming hours, and ultimately empower the economy of agrarian rural communities.
Copyright (c) 2025 Wahdaniah Hamzah, Mahmud Achmad, Abdul Azis, Daniel Useng, Haerani Haerani, Syahrial Sabaniah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Effects of Blanching Pretreatment on the Quality Attributes of Freeze-Dried Red Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus costaricensis)
Freeze drying is an effective method for preserving heat-sensitive fruits such as dragon fruit (Hylocereus costaricensis) by removing moisture through sublimation. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of blanching pretreatment on the quality attributes of freeze-dried dragon fruit, including moisture content, color, total soluble solids (TSS), and texture. A completely randomized design with two treatments (blanched at 90°C for 3 minutes and unblanched) and three replications was employed. Samples were cut into 1 mm and 3 mm thicknesses and freeze-dried at –50°C and 20 Pa for 24 hours. Results showed that blanching significantly reduced moisture content (final difference ≈1%), but also led to greater color degradation (lower L∗ and a∗ values, higher ΔE) and softer texture compared to unblanched samples. TSS values were lower in blanched samples. In conclusion, blanching enhances drying efficiency but compromises color, texture, and soluble solids retention in freeze-dried dragon fruit.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nur Fitri Ramadhani, Junaedi Muhidong Ramadhani, Mursalim Mursalim, Gemala Hardinasinta, Febriana Intan Permata Hati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
ESP32 IoT Auger‑Based Automatic Feeder for Fish Pellets
Manual fish feeding in aquaponics often leads to inconsistent schedules and imprecise dosing, degrading water quality and system performance. This study designs and builds an ESP32‑based IoT automatic fish feeder using an auger dispensing mechanism controlled via the Blynk platform. The objectives are to develop a reliable feeder, calibrate dosing for different pellet sizes (1, 2, and 3 mm), and evaluate scheduling accuracy and dosing precision. The prototype consists of a 3 kg acrylic hopper (45° angle of repose), a cast‑iron auger, and an ESP32 control module with a servo and DC motor driven by an L298N driver. Calibration established linear models between servo rotation time and feed dose, and between motor PWM and throwing distance. Performance tests were conducted over three days with twice‑daily feeding. Results show strong linearity in calibration (dose–time R² > 0.997; PWM–distance R² > 0.92), perfect schedule adherence (zero delay at 08:00 and 15:00), and high dosing accuracy across pellet sizes, with average errors of 2.37% (1 mm), 3.04% (2 mm), and 2.94% (3 mm) (overall mean 2.78%). In conclusion, the system integrates mechanical reliability, electronic control, and IoT accessibility to deliver precise, scheduled, and remotely controllable feed management for aquaponics. The approach is practical and low‑cost, and it contributes to smart aquaculture by enhancing operational efficiency and reducing labor dependency.
Copyright (c) 2025 Aqid Mukhtar, Ahmad Munir, Abdul Azis https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Automation of a Combustion Engine-Driven Sprinkler Irrigation Pump in Shallot (Allium ascalonicum) Cultivation
Sprinkler irrigation control is necessary not only for efficiency but also for reducing bulb rot in shallot cultivation caused by excessive watering. This study developed an Arduino-based automatic control system for a combustion-engine-powered sprinkler irrigation setup to prevent overwatering in shallot farming in Enrekang Regency, Indonesia. The system used a servo motor to adjust the throttle lever of the combustion engine, allowing it to stop pumping the water when the soil moisture level detected by the YL-69 sensor exceeded the optimal threshold. This ensured that the irrigation was applied according to the ideal soil moisture level. The testing included infiltration rate measurement, sprinkler uniformity analysis, sensor calibration, system performance evaluation, and shallot yield assessment. The results showed an average irrigation uniformity coefficient (CU) of 84.34%, with the system operating for 10–28 minutes to maintain soil moisture at no more than 70%. The plot using the control system yielded 140 kg of shallots, whereas the plot without the system produced only 96.2 kg. Additionally, the percentage of rotten shallots in the control plot was 5%, which was significantly lower than that observed in the uncontrolled plot (18%). This system effectively reduced bulb rot, demonstrating its feasibility for optimizing water use and improving crop productivity in areas without access to electricity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rosalinda Rosalinda, Muhammad Tahir Sapsal, Mahmud Achmad, Hutabarat Olly Sanny, Munir Ahmad, Suhardi Suhardi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Effect of Temperature and Heating Time on The Yield and Chemical Quality of Red Fruit (Pandanus conoideus) Oil Using Dry Extraction Method
The quality of Red Fruit Oil (RFO) is influenced by the extraction method. The objective of this research was to study the effect of temperature and heating time of red fruit on the chemical quality of red fruit oil using the dry extraction method. This research was divided into two steps: 1) evaluation of the chemical quality (water content, free fatty acid (FFA), iodine value, and carotenoid total) of the red fruit oil during the steaming of red fruit grains (drupa) at 60 , 80 , and 100°C for 20, 80, and 60 minutes; and 2) evaluation of the chemical quality (water content, FFA, and total carotenoids) of RFO during the steaming of red fruit chunk of whole fruit (cepallum) at 100°C for 60 minutes and 120°C for 30 minutes. The results showed that increasing the temperature and heating time of red fruit grains increased the yield (1.20 to 5.95%) and decreased the FFA levels (4.5 to 2.7%); however, the total carotenoid content of oil tended to decrease (from 7570 to 7209 μg/mL). Heating at 100°C for 60 minutes did not affect the level of saturated fatty acids in RFO. The steaming process of the red fruit chunk of whole fruit before extraction could decrease the oil yield and total carotenoid levels, as well as lower the FFA level of oil than steaming of red fruit grains.
Copyright (c) 2025 Wilson Palelingan Aman, Zita Letviany Sarungallo, Budi Santoso, Murtiningrum, Sritina N.P. Paiki https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Isotherm Curve Model of Ciherang and Ciliwung Grain Varieties
The advancement of post-harvest technology in Indonesia has provided accurate models for predicting grain behavior during storage. This study aimed to determine the best sorption isotherm model for describing the equilibrium moisture content of Ciherang and Ciliwung rice varieties. Rice samples were stored in 18 desiccators containing salt solutions with relative humidity (RH) levels of 10–80% at temperatures of 30, 40, and 50°C. Water content parameters were measured and three models (Oswin, Kuhn, and Chung-Pfost) were evaluated based on their coefficient of determination (R²). The results indicated that the Chung-Pfost model yielded the highest R² values for both varieties. For Ciherang, the R² values were 0.921 (30°C), 0.938 (40°C), and 0.931 (50°C), while Ciliwung showed R² values of 0.894 (30°C), 0.915 (40°C), and 0.920 (50°C). The study concluded that the Chung-Pfost model effectively represents water absorption behavior in these rice varieties, with higher temperatures reducing the equilibrium moisture content
Copyright (c) 2025 Rahmawati Yuni, Muhidong Junaedi, Haerani Haerani https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Estimation of Soil C-Organic Content Based on Reflectance Values Generated from Spectrometer
C-Organic is an important component of soil fertility. The intensity of agricultural land use affects the organic matter content in the soil. A spectrometer can be used to measure organic matter content through reflectance values. This study aimed to compare reflectance values and C-Organic content in rice fields with planting Index (IP) of 100 and IP of 300 in Maros Regency, as well as to analyze the relationship between reflectance values and laboratory test results. The method used involved collecting soil samples from both types of rice fields, measuring reflectance using a spectrometer in the Blue, Green, Red, and NIR spectra, and analyzing their relationship with C-Organic content. The results showed that reflectance values and C-Organic content in 300 IP were higher than in 100 IP, with the highest coefficient of determination (R²) was in red spectrum, i.e. 0.9425. The C-Organic content at the research field was classified as very low, ranging from 0.61 to 1.05%, with a higher average in 300 IP (0.96%) compared to 100 IP (0.74%). This study concluded that a spectrometer can be a fast and accurate alternative for detecting soil C-Organic content, especially at a wavelength of 650 nm.
Copyright (c) 2025 Salmia Salmia, Danie Useng Useng, Samsuar Samsuar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Economical Used-Oil Stove for Post-Harvest Energy in Agriculture
This study aims to develop and test the performance of energy-efficient stoves fueled by used oil as a renewable alternative energy solution for small-scale farmers. The stoves are designed to reduce dependence on subsidized Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) while utilizing the increasing amount of oil waste in rural areas. The method used is Research and Development (R&D) with performance testing through the Water Boiling Test (WBT) and Fuel Consumption Rate (FCR) calculations. The main findings show that used oil stoves have an average thermal efficiency of 32.28%, meeting the SNI 7926:2013 standard (>30%), although slightly below the efficiency of LPG stoves (37.45%). These stoves are able to boil water 3-5 minutes faster than LPG stoves after reaching stable combustion conditions. From an economic perspective, the daily operating cost of used oil stoves is only Rp1,986, or 69.45% cheaper than LPG, and only consumes 4.9% of farmers' monthly income—far lower than LPG, which reaches 16%. With a production cost of IDR 363,000 per unit, this stove is not only affordable but also has the potential to reduce environmental impact through the utilization of waste oil. The research results indicate that used oil stoves are suitable for implementation as appropriate technology that supports energy security and the household economy of farmers.
Copyright (c) 2025 Muhamad Khuldi Mamangkai, Hendro Maxwell Sumual, Jenly Dyliep Isria Manongko https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Qualitative Study of Two and Four-Wheel Tractor Use in Timor-Leste’s Five Districts
Agricultural mechanization is increasingly promoted to address labor constraints and improve the timeliness of field operations in rice-based farming systems. This study qualitatively examines the use of two-wheel and four-wheel tractors in five districts of Timor-Leste (Manufahi, Covalima, Bobonaro, Manatuto, and Ainaro) and identifies key barriers and strategic implications for strengthening mechanization. Field data were collected through observation, questionnaires, and farmer interviews, and were synthesized using a SWOT (Strengths–Weaknesses–Opportunities–Threats) approach. Results indicate that tractor utilization remains limited across all districts, with most farmers reporting no tractor use (72.5–85.0%). A system-level assessment of four-wheel tractor (TR4) adequacy shows a substantial demand–availability gap: 124 units are available against an estimated requirement of 293 units (≈42.3% fulfillment), implying a shortfall of 169 units and potential bottlenecks during peak land preparation periods. District-level efficiency indications vary, suggesting different levels of operational pressure and the need for targeted interventions. The SWOT synthesis highlights productivity and efficiency gains as key strengths, while financial limitations, uneven distribution, and limited maintenance/spare-part access remain major weaknesses. Recommendations include strengthening operator and farmer training, improving maintenance and spare-part services (service centers and mobile repair), and enhancing access mechanisms such as managed hire services and context-appropriate financing to support reliable and timely tractor utilization
Copyright (c) 2025 Arcanjo De Jesus, Iqbal Iqbal, Abdul Azis https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Application of Fuzzy Control and IoT Monitoring on Small Scale Biofermentor for Making Virgin Coconut Oil
Virgin Coconut Oil is a pure coconut oil that can be obtained from the extract of fresh and old coconut meat. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of a biofermentor integrated with a fuzzy logic control system and IoT for VCO production. The research involved designing control rules to regulate temperature, testing the IoT system for real-time monitoring, and assessing the biofermentor's performance. The parameters observed were control system response, temperature, yield and moisture content. Results showed that the fuzzy control system effectively maintained temperature stability, resulting in a higher yield (39.65%) and lower moisture content (0.08%) compared to conventional methods. In addition, the fuzzy control rules are able to regulate the power so that the temperature overshoot is quite small (1%), the settling time is relatively short (9 minutes), the temperature is stable, and the steady state error is 1.02% (with in tolerance limits).
Copyright (c) 2024 Ayusari, Abdul Waris, and Muhammad Tahir Sapsal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Determination of Rice Field Potential Index Based on Geographic Information System in Gowa Regency
The Index of Land Potential (IPL) is a land evaluation method that aims to identify and utilize land according to its potential. Through IPL, it is expected to achieve optimal productivity and land sustainability. This research aims to determine the Paddy Field Potential Index with the IPL weighting method using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in Gowa Regency. In this research, the method used is a tiered quantitative approach, where each parameter is given an appropriate weight. Overlapping techniques were applied to various maps used to assess land potential, including aspects of slope, soil type, lithology, hydrology, and disaster risk. The results of this study include a land potential index map and a map of paddy field potential in Gowa Regency. In the LMI, the dominating classes are low and very low, covering an area of 156,885.34 ha (72%), while the use of paddy fields in the very high and high potential classes covers an area of 20,604.48 ha (39%). The relationship between productivity and IPL is explained through the equation IPL = 0.1025P + 4.9539 with a value of R2 = 0.7809, which indicates that an increase in IPL can be a guide to increasing the productivity of rice plants..
Copyright (c) 2024 Desi Rahmatya, Mahmud Achmad, Samsuar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Production of Biochar from Sago Dregs Using NaOH Pretreatment and Microwave Pyrolysis
The waste from sago dregs generated during the starch extraction process has not been optimally utilized and has the potential to cause environmental pollution. This study aimed to process sago dregs into biochar through chemical pretreatment (NaOH soaking) and physical pretreatment (microwave pyrolysis) and applied it as raw material for briquettes. The research methods consisted of (1) Pretreatment of sago dregs with 10% and 30% NaOH for 6 hours, (2) Pyrolysis using a 540-watt microwave at 300–400°C for 20 minutes, and (3) Briquette production using sago starch binder at a 10:1 ratio. The analysis results indicated that 30% NaOH pretreatment significantly reduced cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents to 1.07, 0.52, and 1.10%, respectively, compared to the 10% NaOH (6.11%, 5.71%, and 6.03%). The moisture content of biochar decreased to 2.53–2.65%, in accordance to SNI 06-3730-1995 standard of 10% maximum . However, the ash content increased to 45.99–53.78%, exceeding the SNI limit of 15%. Briquettes made from 30% NaOH-pretreated biochar had the longest burning time (26.54 minutes), outperforming the 10% NaOH (12.32 minutes). This study found that sago dregs have the potential to serve as a high-quality biochar raw material due to its moisture content meets the SNI standard, although its high ash content limits its use as fuel. Sago dregs biochar briquettes can be considered a renewable energy alternative, while the high ash content offers potential applications in soil or water remediation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jabal Nur Syam, Yumeina Diyah, Salengke Salengke https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Temperature and Humidity Control in a Small-Scale Greenhouse in a Tropical Climate
Global climate change has increased fluctuations in temperature and humidity, threatening the sustainability of the agricultural sector. This research aimed to develop an Internet of Things (IoT)-based microclimate control system for greenhouses using Arduino and the Thingspeak platform. The system was designed as a closed-loop using an ESP-32 as the control center, a DHT-22 sensor for data acquisition, and Solid-State Relay (SSR) actuators to control the blower, heater, and misting pump. Testing was conducted in a greenhouse with an area of 3 m² and a height of 2.3 meters. The results showed that the system could maintain a temperature of 27–36°C (external deviation: 29–48°C) and humidity of 85–90% (external deviation: 47–100%) with low overshoot, namely 1.18% (temperature) and 1.49% (humidity), and a settling time of under 4 minutes. The steady-state error was within the tolerance limit (maximum 5%). However, the system experienced a data loss of 26.04% and an average transmission delay of 16.5 seconds due to network instability at the test location. Nevertheless, the system proved effective in maintaining an optimal microclimate for small-scale plant growth.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tisha Aditya A. Jamaluddin, Faridah Sitti Nur, Sapsal Muhammad Tahir, Andini Dani Achmad, Ari Reskyanto https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Strategy for Developing Four-Wheel Tractor Utilization at the Agricultural Agribusiness UPTD of Maros Regency
Agricultural mechanization through four-wheel tractors (TR4) plays a critical role in improving rice farming efficiency and addressing persistent labor shortages in rural areas. However, research on the institutional development strategies of government-managed Alsintan service units (UPTD) at the district level remains limited in the Indonesian context. This study aims to (1) identify internal and external factors influencing TR4 utilization at the UPTD of Agricultural Agribusiness Management of Maros Regency, and (2) formulate strategic development recommendations. Data were collected through structured interviews and questionnaires involving 15 purposively selected respondents comprising UPTD managers, field extension officers, farmers, and representatives from related agencies. SWOT analysis was applied using Internal Factor Analysis Summary (IFAS) and External Factor Analysis Summary (EFAS) matrices with weighted scoring. Results indicated that the IFAS strength score (3.340) exceeded the weakness score (3.098), and the EFAS opportunity score (3.091) exceeded the threat score (2.856), positioning the UPTD in Quadrant I (Aggressive/SO Strategy). The identified priority strategies are: (1) socialization of TR4 services supported by relevant government agencies; (2) strengthening multi-stakeholder cooperation; (3) application of competitive rental rates; and (4) expansion of TR4 fleet availability through policy advocacy. These findings provide evidence-based recommendations for institutional development and agricultural mechanization policy in Maros Regency.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kartini Kartini, Iqbal, Olly Sanny Hutabarat https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Changes in Coconut Water Quality (Cocos nucifera L) During the Storage Process
Coconut water (Cocos nucifera L.) is a natural beverage widely recognized for its high nutritional and health benefits. It contains essential electrolytes such as potassium, magnesium, and calcium, along with various vitamins and antioxidants; however, the quality deteriorates over time during storage. This study compares changes in the quality of young and mature coconut water stored at cold and ambient temperatures over a specific period of time. The research method includes measuring turbidity levels, pH, and total dissolved solids (TDS). The results indicate that both young and mature coconut water experience degradation in quality during storage, although at different rates. Storage at ambient temperature leads to a more rapid decline in quality than cold storage for both maturity types. Additionally, microbial growth is more frequently detected in coconut water stored at ambient temperature, particularly in mature coconut water. This study summarises that the quality of young and mature coconut water is influenced by storage temperature, with mature coconut water deteriorating at a higher rate. These findings can be recommended for storing coconut water at cold temperatures and consuming it shortly after opening it.
Copyright (c) 2024 Nurlisa Andini, Junaedi Muhidong, Haerani, Febriana Intan Permata Hati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Effect of Fermentation and Soaking Time on Water Content of Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.)
Post-harvest handling, particularly fermentation and soaking, significantly affects cocoa quality. This study investigates the effects of fermentation duration (3, 5, 7 days) and soaking time (1, 2, 3 hours) on the moisture content of MCC 02 cocoa beans. The fermented beans were sun-dried, and moisture content was analyzed using the wet/dry basis method. Results showed the lowest wet basis moisture content of 55.65% for beans fermented for 3 days and soaked for 1 hour, and the highest of 63.1% for beans fermented for 3 days and soaked for 2 hours. After drying, the control sample had a moisture content of 7.7% (63.5% before drying), while the lowest moisture content for beans fermented for 5 days with 1-hour soaking was 7.95%, and the highest was 10.65% for beans fermented for 3 days with 1-hour soaking, exceeding the SNI standard (6-7%). Temperature fluctuations (28 - 37°C) and weather-dependent drying prolonged the process, resulting in higher moisture content than the standard, indicating the need for controlled drying methods.
Copyright (c) 2024 Sri Wahyuni Rahman, Abdul Azis, and Junaedi Muhidong https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Estimating Corn Productivity Using Sentinel-2 Imagery and Spectrometer
Corn is a staple food for the Indonesian population due to its high carbohydrate content, second only to rice. Estimating corn production before the harvest period is crucial for predicting total production output from a given location. This study aims to develop a production model for corn using Sentinel-2 satellite imagery combined with spectral data from a spectrometer and field measurements. The research involved collecting field data on corn production, downloading Sentinel-2 imagery for the period from December 10, 2022, to February 28, 2023, performing atmospheric correction and image cropping, transforming the data into NDVI and EVI vegetation indices, and analyzing the data using simple linear regression to determine the relationship between the NDVI and EVI indices and corn plant parameters, specifically biomass. The results show a strong correlation between productivity estimates using Sentinel-2 and spectrometer data with field observations. For the Sentinel-2 Vegetation Index, EVI has the highest correlation with productivity at approximately 88%, compared to other vegetation indices at around 80%. For the Spectrometer Vegetation Index, NDVI has the highest correlation at around 83%, while other indices are below 80%. Therefore, Sentinel-2 and spectrometer data can effectively estimate productivity in corn plantations.
Copyright (c) 2024 Yeli Oktaviana Liku Liku, Daniel Daniel, Nur Faridah Sitti https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Performance Test and Operational Cost Analysis of the Jajar Legowo RTP-2040 Rice Transplanter in Padaelo Village, Lamuru District
Rice fields are used as an alternative to achieve food self-sufficiency because they have many advantages such as providing lots of water, land close to rivers, and the ability to choose land for farming. So this research is needed to determine the work efficiency and operational costs of the Jajar Legowo RTP 2040 rice transplanter. So that it can maximize the performance of this planting tool when it is later used by farmers. The aim of this research is to determine the work efficiency and operational costs of the Jajar Legowo RTP 2040 rice transplanter on rice fields in Bone Regency. The procedure used begins with the seeding stage, land processing, and the rice transplanter operation stage. The Jajar Legowo RTP 2040 rice transpanter was operated with a test distance of 10 x 10 m and carried out 3 repetitions using a speed of 2 km/hour on the land according to the planting work pattern. The results of this research obtained a KLT value of 0.257 ha/hour, KLE of 0.193 ha/hour, and field efficiency of 75.15%. Meanwhile, the wheel slip value obtained was 15.42. As for the cost analysis, the fixed costs are obtained at Rp.8.842.988,-/year, while the total variable costs are Rp. 5.154.240,-/year. Basic operational costs obtained are IDR. 13.997.228.-/year.
Copyright (c) 2024 Tahir Muhammad Yusuf, Iqbal, Mursalim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
On-Off Water Level Control and IoT Monitoring for Aquaponics Systems
Aquaponic system is a cultivation method that combines fish and plant farming or aquaculture and hydroponics that are mutually beneficial (symbiotic mutualism) at one time. Aquaponic water level control to maintain water volume is still done using conventional methods. Therefore, this research aims to produce a good control system to control aquaponic water levels equipped with an on/off control system and can monitor water levels remotely. This research method includes designing a control system for water level, functional test and performance test of the control system to aquaponics as well as data loss test and network delay to Thinger.io platform. The parameter observed was the water level. The results showed that the on/off control system was able to regulate the water level with no overshoot, the settling time reached for a height of 20 cm was 9 minutes, a height of 25 cm for 22 minutes and for a height of 30 cm for 34 minutes and the steady state error that occurred was still within the tolerance limit. The IoT system using the Thinger.io platform implemented is able to send data and store data during the testing process, and the Thinger.io platform can monitor water levels remotely and provide data in excel format. The test results of lost data with an average of 1.81% and delay testing with an average of 0.88%, based on data mapped every 6 hours, the largest percentage of lost data and delay occurs at 00.00 -06.00 GMT +8.
Copyright (c) 2023 Muhammad Fadil, Ahmad Munir, Muhammad Tahir Sapsal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Aerator System of Ventury Nozzle in Hydroponic for Cultivating Lettuce Plants
Many lettuce plants are grown hydroponically because they produce better quality.The problem with hydroponic systems is that the plant roots are submerged in the nutrient solution, therefore it will rot easily due to lack of oxygen in the root area. To overcome this problem, hydroponics with microbubble technology is applied. This research aims to determine the performance of the ventury dual nozzle in producing microbubbles and its effect on the growth and productivity of lettuce plants. This research was carried out by assembling a hydroponic system equipped with a ventury model aerator, measuring bubble characteristics using the image processing method and analyzing plant parameters using variance analysis. Ventury nozzle with a pressure of 260 KPa produces microbubbles measuring between 200 - 300 m and a spray range of 6.13 cm with a resistance of around 3.2-4.6 seconds. The use of a ventury nozzle model aerator increases dissolved oxygen and distributes it evenly in the hydroponic nutrient solution, thereby increasing the growth and yield of lettuce plants.
Copyright (c) 2024 Sitti Nur Faridah, Abdul Azis, Tisha Aditya A. Jamaluddin, Alifah Agil Anugrah, Husnul Mubarak https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Use Of Sentinel-2 Image Vegetation Index For Biomass Growth Analysis Of Corn Plants At Various Planting Distances
Biomass growth can affect the increase of corn crop production. Efforts can be made to produce good biomass growth, one of which is by adjusting plant spacing to ensure even distribution of nutrients to plants. Vegetation indices on sentinel-2 satellite imagery could used to observe the growth of corn plant biomass. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between sentinel-2 image vegetation index and corn plant growth parameters at a spacing of 70 x 40 cm, 70 x 20 cm and irregular. This research was conducted through several stages, i.e. (1) field data collection of plant height, biomass and leaf area, (2) downloading sentinel-2 image data for the period of December 10, 2022 - February 28, 2023, (3) atmospheric correction and image cropping, (4) transformation of NDVI and EVI vegetation indices and (5) data analysis using simple linear regression analysis to observe the relationship of NDVI and EVI vegetation indices to corn plant growth parameters. The parameters observed were plant height, biomass and leaf area. Based on growth parameters, planting distance of 70 x 40 cm produced good crop growth. Furthermore, growth parameters and vegetation index values of both NDVI and EVI showed a strong correlations at a spacing of 70 x 40 cm. In addition, the transformation map of the two indicices showed that NDVI vegetation index is categorised in the group of medium greenness, while EVI vegetation index is categorised in the group of high greenes. Based on the research results, NDVI and EVI vegetation indices had a strong relationship with the growth parameters of corn plants at a spacing of 70 x 40 cm. In other hand, spacing of 70 x 20 cm and irregular were categorised as moderate. It is found that corn plant growth parameters (plant height, biomass and leaf area) can be monitored using sentinel-2 satellite imagery.
Copyright (c) 2023 Destriana Mayo Elsa, Haerani, Ahmad Munir https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Postharvest handling and processing of coffee beans at UKM Akarosta, Tana Toraja Regency
Postharvest handling and coffee processing must be carried out based on SNI standards to produce good quality and to increase selling value. In Tana Toraja Regency, there are various UKM engaged in the coffee processing industry but not many have analyzed the quality of the coffee produced. The purpose of this research is to know the postharvest handling and processing of coffee bean at UKM Akarosta and compare the proper postharvest handling process of coffee beans based on SNI standards. The results showed that the postharvest method carried out by farmers in Pasang Village, South Makale District, Tana Toraja Regency is a semiwash method which included harvesting, sorting, peeling fruit skins, washing, drying then stripping horn skins, sorting, roasting, grinding and packaging by UKM Akarosta. The postharvest process carried out by farmers has met with SNI. The quality of the coffee beans produced has met the SNI standard quality of coffee beans No. 01-3542-2004.
Copyright (c) 2023 Pista, Diyah Yumeina, Ahmad Munir, Gemala Hardinasinta https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Performance Evaluation of a No-Husk Corn Sheller: A Case Study at Benteng Tellue Workshop
The post-harvest handling of corn involves threshing, the process of separating kernels from the cob. A corn shelling machine without husking offers advantages for both sellers and buyers by allowing manual sorting of good and damaged kernels before threshing. This study evaluates the performance of a no-husk corn sheller used in the Amali District, Bone Regency. Key parameters analyzed include fuel consumption, shelling capacity, percentage of damaged kernels, and cleanliness level at three different rotational speeds (500, 600, and 700 rpm). The results indicate that increasing the rotational speed leads to higher fuel consumption and improved shelling capacity. However, the percentage of damaged kernels decreases with higher speeds, achieving an average damage rate of 0.049%. Additionally, the cleanliness level of the shelled corn reaches an average of 98%, confirming the machine’s efficiency. These findings suggest that optimizing the rotational speed enhances both productivity and output quality, making the no-husk corn sheller a viable tool for post-harvest processing.
Copyright (c) 2024 Syahrul Ramadhan, Muhammad Tahir Sapsal, Junaedi Muhidong https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Identifications of Wavelenght, Absorbance and Reflectance of Robusta Coffee During the Postharvest Process
Spectrometer is one of the tools that can produce a spectrum of light with certain wavelengths. A wavelength produced by measurements using a spectrometer will produce absorbance, reflectance and transmittance values. The result of light absorbed by the object is called absorbance, the light reflected by the object is called reflectance, while that which is not absorbed and not reflected by the object is called transmittance.Objective. The purpose of this study are the wavelength, absorbance value, reflectance and its relationship to color in the post-harvest process so that it is expected to be a reference and can provide information about wavelength, absorbance value, reflectance and its relationship to color in the post-harvest process.Methods. Measuring wavelenght, absorbance and reflectanceduring the postharvest process, both before treatment and after treatment. Results. The results obtained are the absorbance value of fresh green coffee of 0.98%, fresh yellow coffee of 0.18% and red coffee of 0.27%. However, after going through the post-harvest process there is a change in the absorbance value where green coffee that has been dried using the yellow honey method has decreased by 0.92% and the black honey method is 0.38% while yellow and red coffee beans have increased at wavelengths ranging from 300-400 nm and 400-500 nm, as well as roasted coffee. While the reflectance value can be seen that fresh green coffee has a reflectance value of 92%, yellow coffee is 89% and red is 69%. However, after going through the post-harvest process where green and yellow coffee that has been dried using the black honey and yellow honey methods has decreased and red coffee beans have increased at wavelengths around 900-1000 nm, as well as roasted coffee, therefore, can be concluded that the post-harvest process causes the absorbance and reflectance values to change at the same wavelength.These findings are expected could provide the information regarding the change of wavelength, absorbance and reflectance during coffee processing.
Copyright (c) 2023 Nur Ismi Syarifuddin, Olly Sanny Hutabarat, Daniel Useng, Febriana Intan Permata Hati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0